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What Is the Difference Between an LVP Product and an SPC Product?

When it comes to choosing flooring materials, you have a lot of different options. There are dozens of types of stone, tile, and wood you can use, along with cheaper alternatives that can mimic those materials without breaking the bank. Two of the most popular alternative materials are luxury vinyl plank flooring, and stone polymer composite flooring: LVP and SPC. What’s the difference between them? And which is the best option for your home? Here’s a brief overview of these two flooring products.

What Are LVP and SPC?

Luxury vinyl planks are made of compressed layers of vinyl, with a high resolution image overlaid onto them, to mimic the look of another material. Planks are generally used to mimic hardwood, because the shape is similar to real wood planks. The high res image allows vinyl to look like virtually any other material, though, such as stone, tile, and more. LVP has several layers, but the main one is its vinyl core, which makes the planks durable but flexible.

Stone polymer composite flooring is similar, in that it includes a high resolution image, overlaid onto vinyl and coated with a transparent wear layer to protect the floor from scratches, stains, fading, etc. However, the core material in SPC is a hybrid of plastic and compressed limestone powder. This makes the planks hard and rigid, rather than soft and flexible.

The two materials are similar in many ways. They’re both waterproof, scratchproof, and generally fairly durable. They’re easy to install yourself, without the use of glues and solvents, and easy to maintain, with regular sweeping to get rid of dust, and a quick mop to get rid of spills. And they’re both significantly cheaper than the materials they’re acting as a substitute for.

The Differences

So, besides flexibility, what differences are there between the characteristics of LVP and SPC flooring? The rigid structure of SPC gives it a few advantages. While both can be installed over virtually any solid subfloor, LVP needs its subfloor to be completely level, and free of any dents, obstructions, etc. The flexible material will take on the shape of any imperfections, whereas SPC will keep its own shape, regardless of the floor below it.

By the same token, SPC is also more durable, resistant to dents and other damage. It will last longer, hold up better to wear. The rigidity of SPC also allows it to provide more support underfoot, while LVP’s pliability gives it a softer, more comfortable feel for walking on. SPC is also slightly thicker than LVP, and its look and texture tend to be a bit more realistic.

SPC has many advantages over LVP, but it does have one drawback. Its rigid, composite construction makes it more expensive than vinyl. While both are still cost-effective compared to wood, stone, or tile, if you’re on a tight budget, LVP is likely a better bet.

This is just a brief overview of the two flooring materials. There are plenty of other pros and cons of each, depending on your specific situation. So which flooring material is best for you? Talk to a flooring expert who can help you weigh the pros and cons of stone polymer composites vs. luxury vinyl planks, and decide which one best meets your home’s needs and can serve you in good stead for years to come.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of SPC Flooring

SPC flooring is becoming more and more popular thanks to all its remarkably desirable traits and features. However, how much do you really know about SPC flooring? Nothing is perfect in this world, it is no surprise that SPC flooring also carries some downsides with it.

It is only fair enough if you are made known of the pros and cons of SPC flooring before you join the SPC fanatic troop.

Here are the lists of SPC flooring pros and cons.

Rigid core luxury vinyl flooring, also known as SPC flooring, is the most durable waterproof vinyl flooring option on the market. It has a similar construction to WPC, but it comes with an ultra-tough core, which is where the name “rigid core” comes from.

So what does SPC stand for? As it turns out, it stands for a couple of terms that are used interchangeably: stone plastic composite or stone polymer composite. It refers to the make-up of the core. The SPC core is what makes this flooring so incredibly durable, maintaining its form even over uneven subfloors.

That means you can install SPC rigid core luxury vinyl flooring on any level, over almost any existing (hard surface) subfloor and for any amount of traffic.

WPC Flooring, SPC Flooring and LVT Flooring: What Differences, Similarities and Benefits?

If you own a modern home or have plans to own one in the future, you must have heard of vinyl floorings. These affordable and stylish flooring options are increasingly becoming the choice of many homeowners and commercial property owners who want to give their living and working spaces a fresh look.

There are three main types of vinyl flooring - WPC flooring, LVT flooring and SPC flooring. In terms of market entry, traditional versions of Luxury Vinyl Tile flooring have been in the market for many years. With time, changes in buyer preferences led to the development of advanced flooring solutions that saw rigid core vinyl such as WPC and SPC flooring hit the market.

Even so, each flooring type comes with its own set of benefits and drawbacks that you need to consider before settling for one. Though different, the three flooring types share several similarities.

In this article, we explore the benefits, differences and similarities that SPC Vinyl flooring, LVT and WPC floorings have.

Before we delve into this, let's first define each of these vinyl flooring:

LVT Flooring

Luxury Vinyl Tile is an updated and innovative version of vinyl flooring that is today a top contender when it comes to floor installations in commercial and living spaces. Designed with a real wood, stone or ceramic look, LVT flooring is not just affordable, it is also durable, waterproof and resistant to scratches.

SPC Flooring

Stone Plastic Composite (SPC flooring), also referred to as Rigid Vinyl Plank, is an upgrade of LVT. SPC vinyl flooring comes with multiple layers and backing options that make it ideal for homes. Some key aspects that make it stand out include low noise levels, no warping, eco-friendliness and insulation against sound and heat.

WPC Flooring

Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) derives its name from the wood-like material used to make it. These materials include a foaming agent known as polyvinyl chloride, plasticisers, wood flour and calcium carbonate.

What does Embossed Vinyl Flooring MeanAs you explore the many flooring options available for your home, you may be focused on finding a beautiful material that enhances the décor. Real hardwood flooring is a popular option because of its undeniable charm and wide range of available styles. Many people love the texture of the grain of the wood as well as its richness and sheen. From the sophisticate of deep cherry wood with a smooth sheen to the deep striations and character of oak floors with a textured finish, there is a wood flooring style that is seemingly perfect for most homes. However, wood flooring as its drawbacks. For example, it may easily be scratched, and it should not be exposed to moisture. In addition, it may be one of the more expensive flooring options available. If you are looking for a great alternative to real hardwood flooring without the drawbacks, embossed vinyl flooring or laminate flooring mimics the grain of the wood and may be a more suitable option for your home.

Before you learn about embossed vinyl and laminate flooring, it makes sense to understand how vinyl floors and laminate planks are different than hardwood flooring. These are both synthetic flooring materials that are known for their affordability and durability. Vinyl is usually comprised of a PVC material, and it can be texturized and dyed to mimic the look of many other types of floors. Regardless of whether you choose embossed vinyl planks or tiles, floating vinyl or glue installation methods are available.

Laminate flooring, on the other hand, is comprised of multiple layers of a wood material compressed tightly together. This material is usually fiber board or a type of melamine resin. It is covered with a printed layer that can mimic the look of wood flooring. Laminate also has a wear layer, which could have a textured finish or a smooth finish. It is most commonly available in laminate planks, but you can find tiles as well. The same installation methods that are available for vinyl flooring are available for laminate flooring.

How to Estimate T-Bar CeilingsT-bar ceilings, also known as acoustical ceilings, usually are installed to hide overhead ducts and pipes in basements. In other cases, t-bar ceilings in kitchens have flush overhead lighting and water-resistant ceiling tiles. T-bar ceilings consist of a metal grid and ceiling tiles. Taking a few measurements and deciding on the size of the tiles allows you to estimate the cost of materials and installation.

Determine the square footage of the T-bar ceiling. To do this, measure the length and width of the room and multiply one by the other. In other words, if the room is 20 feet long and 14 feet wide, the square footage is 280 feet. If a measurement isn't exact to a foot, round it up to the next foot.

Determine the square footage of ceiling tiles based on the square footage of the ceiling. Acoustic ceiling tiles are sold by the square foot in packages that contain eight tiles. The number of packages is not particularly relevant, as long as the square footage is determined.

Determine the size of the tiles, such as 24-inch square or 24-by-48-inches. If the larger tiles are a preference, determine the direction they will install, such as perpendicular to the long walls or running in the same direction. With this determined, proceed with estimating the grid.

Shielded Cable: When To Use

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is prevalent throughout the factory floor. This is why data and signal cables are usually protected with insulated conductors and wrapped with a conductive layer. Shielding reduces electrical noise and reduces its impact on signals and also lowers electromagnetic radiation. Shielding prevents crosstalk between cables near each other. Shielding not only protects cable but it can also protect machinery and people as well.

Power cables are constructed to be electromagnetic compatible (EMC) to minimize noise generation, which affects many other systems like radio and data communication.

Communication cables are shielded to prevent the effects on the data transmitted from EMI. To further prevent cross talk and coupling, communication cables are also paired and individually shielded.

In some applications, such as those needing servo cables, double or even triple shielding is required: around individual conductors, around twisted pairs, and around the entire cable.

Some applications do not require shielded cables. For example, if a cable will be used in a cabinet or otherwise away from other sources of noise, it does not need to be shielded, as it will be protected from noise and EMI already.

Cable shielding uses either a braided, spiral design or metal-coated Mylar or foil shield. The shielding wraps around each conductor to mitigate noise by 85% to 100%, depending on the configuration. The maximum shielding a braided shield can have is 90%. Spiral shields can offer 98%, while metal-coated Mylar can deflect 100% of EMI.

Using a thin layer of Mylar or aluminum foil eliminates the gaps you may encounter with braided designs. The foil is attached to a polyester backing to provide 100% coverage. However, because it is thin, it can make applying connectors a challenge. Foil shielding can also be damaged in high-flex applications, so spiral or braided designs work best there.

Just as described, braided shielding is made of a mesh of bare or tinned copper wires woven together. It is easy to terminate when crimping or soldering a connector. Because of the braiding, small gaps of coverage do occur, thus resulting in the only 90% shield rating. If the cable is not moving or flexing, this coverage should be sufficient. However, the braided design does add cost and weight to the final design.

If an environment is extremely noisy, a cable may use multiple layers of shielding with both the braided and foil designs. Sometimes pairs of wires are shielded individually in addition to the entire cable being shielded. This is done to prevent crosstalk between pairs.

Unlikely competitor for diamond as best thermal conductor: Boron arsenide potential for cooling applications

The discovery that the chemical compound of boron and arsenic could rival diamond, the best-known thermal conductor, surprised the team of theoretical physicists from Boston College and the Naval Research Laboratory. But a new theoretical approach allowed the team to unlock the secret to boron arsenide's potentially extraordinary ability to conduct heat.

Smaller, faster and more powerful microelectronic devices pose the daunting challenge of removing the heat they generate. Good thermal conductors placed in contact with such devices channel heat rapidly away from unwanted "hot spots" that decrease the efficiency of these devices and can cause them to fail.

Diamond is the most highly prized of gemstones. But, beyond its brilliance and beauty in jewelry, it has many other remarkable properties. Along with its carbon cousins graphite and graphene, diamond is the best thermal conductor around room temperature, having thermal conductivity of more than 2,000 watts per meter per Kelvin, which is five times higher than the best metals such as copper. Currently, diamond is widely used to help remove heat from computer chips and other electronic devices. Unfortunately, diamond is rare and expensive, and high quality synthetic diamond is difficult and costly to produce. This has spurred a search for new materials with ultra-high thermal conductivities, but little progress has been made in recent years.

The high thermal conductivity of diamond is well understood, resulting from the lightness of the constituent carbon atoms and the stiff chemical bonds between them, according to co-author David Broido, a professor of physics at Boston College. On the other hand, boron arsenide was not expected to be a particularly good thermal conductor and in fact had been estimated -- using conventional evaluation criteria -- to have a thermal conductivity 10 times smaller than diamond.

The team found the calculated thermal conductivity of cubic boron arsenide is remarkably high, more than 2000 Watts per meter per Kelvin at room temperature and exceeding that of diamond at higher temperatures, according to Broido and co-authors Tom Reinecke, senior scientist at the Naval Research Laboratory, and Lucas Lindsay, a post-doctoral researcher at NRL who earned his doctorate at BC.

Broido said the team used a recently developed theoretical approach for calculating thermal conductivities, which they had previously tested with many other well-studied materials. Confident in their theoretical approach, the team took a closer look at boron arsenide, whose thermal conductivity has never been measured.

Unlike metals, where electrons carry heat, diamond and boron arsenide are electrical insulators. For them, heat is carried by vibrational waves of the constituent atoms, and the collision of these waves with each other creates an intrinsic resistance to heat flow. The team was surprised to find an unusual interplay of certain vibrational properties in boron arsenide that lie outside of the guidelines commonly used to estimate the thermal conductivity of electrical insulators. It turns out the expected collisions between vibrational waves are far less likely to occur in a certain range of frequencies. Thus, at these frequencies, large amounts heat can be conducted in boron arsenide.

How Does Sound Absorbing Material Work?

Sounds are occurring all around us, at every moment of the day, and some of them are held more clearly than others.

If you've been trying to soundproof your home and block certain noises, you've likely looked into the marvel of sound absorbing materials and how they can help.

How does sound absorbing material work?

A material with sound absorbing properties is able to take the energy created from sound and turns it into another type of energy. These dense but soft materials help to absorb the sound or vibrations as the waves hit it, and it deforms this energy which reduces its effect.

To give you a better understanding of what sound absorbing materials do, we've created a simple guide that answers all of the questions you need to know. With a simple explanation of the science behind sound and absorption, you’ll be better equipped to choose a soundproofing material that works.

Without sound, there would be no need for sound absorption methods, so it's a good idea to understand the science behind how it’s made and where it goes.

A sound wave is created by a vibration that is sent through the air at varying lengths, like when someone yells, and these can be categorized as either high or low-frequency sounds depending on their length.

A high-frequency sound wave can be reflected by thin materials, whereas low-frequency sound waves pass through them. Any soundwave that’s allowed to continue traveling will make noise unless there are materials or objects in the way.

When none of this sound is absorbed, it creates noise, and if your goal is to prevent this noise from occurring, you need the right materials and setup to absorb them completely.

Electrically Conductive Adhesives

Electrically conductive adhesive products are primarily used for electronics applications where components need to be held in place and electrical current can be passed between them.

Depending on gap between components, most general adhesives (such as anaerobics, cyanoacrylates, epoxies, and acrylic-based adhesives) act as an electrical insulator. Some offer improved thermal conductivity to help with thermal management of electronic components and heat sinks, directing heat away from sensitive components. Because in many cases (particularly when using an anaerobic or cyanoacrylate adhesive) there is no glue line control and effectively parts are touching (with adhesives filling in microscopic crevices), some electrical charge can still be transferred as there is enough metal to metal contact still occurring.

Certain temperature-sensitive electronic components cannot be soldered (as the intense heat of liquid solder and the soldering iron can cause damage to the component). This type of application calls for an electrically conductive adhesive that can be used in place of solder. PCBs with components attached to both sides can also benefit from using an electrically conductive adhesive as assembly process is easier without risk of components dropping off the underside when parts are soldered on the top. Using electrically conductive adhesive for an entire electrical assembly negates the requirement to undergo a solder re-flow process.

Applications for electrically conductive adhesives aren’t just limited to bonding components onto PCBs or die attach, they can be very useful for other electronic applications where substrates are temperature sensitive – such as for touch-panels, LCD displays, coating and bonding RFID chips, and mounting LEDs. Solar cells also use adhesives instead of solder as there is less warpage and damage to the sensitive wafers that make up solar cells.

Which material is used for electromagnetic shielding?Typical materials used for electromagnetic shielding include sheet metal, metal screen, and metal foam. Common sheet metals for shielding include copper, brass, nickel, silver, steel, and tin. Shielding effectiveness, that is, how well a shield reflects or absorbs/suppresses electromagnetic radiation, is affected by the physical properties of the metal. These may include conductivity, solderability, permeability, thickness, and weight. A metal's properties are an important consideration in material selection. For example, electrically dominant waves are reflected by highly conductive metals like copper, silver, and brass, while magnetically dominant waves are absorbed/suppressed by a less conductive metal such as steel or stainless steel.

Further, any holes in the shield or mesh must be significantly smaller than the wavelength of the radiation that is being kept out, or the enclosure will not effectively approximate an unbroken conducting surface.

Another commonly used shielding method, especially with electronic goods housed in plastic enclosures, is to coat the inside of the enclosure with a metallic ink or similar material. The ink consists of a carrier material loaded with a suitable metal, typically copper or nickel, in the form of very small particulates. It is sprayed on to the enclosure and, once dry, produces a continuous conductive layer of metal, which can be electrically connected to the chassis ground of the equipment, thus providing effective shielding.

Electromagnetic shielding is the process of lowering the electromagnetic field in an area by barricading it with conductive or magnetic material. Copper is used for radio frequency (RF) shielding because it absorbs radio and other electromagnetic waves. Properly designed and constructed RF shielding enclosures satisfy most RF shielding needs, from computer and electrical switching rooms to hospital CAT-scan and MRI facilities.

Variable Speed Compressors for Improved Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is one of the most important factors all businesses are concerned with. The more efficient your air system, the lower your energy consumption and the cheaper your energy bill!

A vast amount of the energy that is lost in a factory or plant is due to wasted energy in an air compressor installation. This can have a huge effect on energy costs, raising your bills and making your cost of ownership high. Various technologies have been developed to ensure that compressed air systems are performing as efficiently as possible, one such technology is variable speed drives (VSD).

Traditional air compressors are fixed speed, meaning they run at a constant and consistent speed. This produces a fixed amount of compressed air per minute. There are many benefits to fixed speed compressor technology if your compressed air demand is constant and unchanging. However, this isn’t always the case. As fixed speed compressors are always operating at full-throttle, if all of the output is not required then energy is being wasted.

Furthermore, fixed speed compressors run unloaded as the stress of an engine start-up would put pressure on the motor. This can be a waste of energy as the machine is running without producing any compressed air. Variable speed compressors avoid this issue by matching the output with the demand created. By simply producing the exact amount of air being used by the downstream equipment, variable speed compressors help to improve plant efficiency.

Watch this video to see how a fixed speed compressor can be sequenced with a variable speed machine to precisely match output with network demand to save energy.

Many air compressor installations will benefit from the efficiency variable speed drive technology provides. Whether you are in the food and beverage industry, automotive, medical industry or even manufacturing, there will be times when your demand for compressed air will vary.

A combination of both variable and fixed speed compressors is thought to be the most cost-effective and advantageous set-up, resulting in the most energy saved and demands met.

Thermocompressor Installation & Troubleshooting

A thermocompressor is a steam control device that uses high-pressure steam (motive steam) to induce flow from a lower pressure steam source (suction steam) and discharge the mixture at an intermediate pressure. The high pressure is used to create a high velocity jet that mixes with and accelerates the suction steam. The velocity of the mixture is exchanged for increased pressure in the diffuser. A Kadant Johnson thermocompressor is shown above.

Installation
Thermocompressors can be installed in any orientation, but directing the discharge horizontally or downward is preferred. A thermocompressor should be independently supported. Using the unit to support piping can impose excessive loads and cause bending and misalignment.

Suction and Discharge Piping
Suction piping must be independently supported. It should be full size to match the suction connection on the thermocompressor. Avoid filters, valves and other fittings that cause pressure loss in the suction line that were not considered in the original design specification. Use low-pressure drop non-return valves and full bore ball or gate type isolation valves in all locations to minimize pressure losses. Avoid low points or loops that might accumulate condensate. A steam pressure gauge with an isolation valve should be located as close to the low-pressure inlet as possible.

Discharge piping should be the same diameter as the discharge connection on the thermocompressor. Discharge piping must be independently supported. Care should be taken to avoid placing restrictions or undue obstructions that will increase the discharge pressure above the design point. A minimum length of 10 pipe diameters is recommended before an elbow to Tee. A steam pressure gauge with an isolation valve should be located as close to the discharge connection as possible.

Motive Steam
The line size should be determined based on the maximum design flow for the thermocompressor. Dry steam is a basic requirement for good performance and wet steam is extremely detrimental to both the performance and the parts of a thermocompressor. Motive pipe runs longer than 10 feet and should have a drip leg and trap to remove condensate from the piping before the motive steam enters the thermocompressor. High-flow losses in the supply lines should be avoided. As the motive pressure falls, the amount of steam required increases. A steam pressure gauge with an isolation valve should be located as close to the motive connection as possible.

Troubleshooting
A thermocompressor in the fully open or closed position during run conditions is usually a problem. Accuracy of the instrumentation and controls should be verified.

Substandard performance can usually be traced to either external or internal causes. Substandard performance can also be classified as either sudden or gradual. A gradual deterioration in performance, usually a loss of recompression, invariably suggests either erosion or corrosion, whereas a sudden loss of compression will usually suggest an external cause.

Since the external causes of trouble are usually easier to check, they should be investigated first.

When a fault is investigated, it is prudent to treat as suspect all the gauges fitted, especially Bourdon Tube type dial gauges. These gauges should, whenever it is possible, be recalibrated.

4 Types of Refrigeration Systems

Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling units are also referred to as swamp coolers. They work by blowing warm outdoor air over pads that are soaked in water. The water’s job is to absorb the heat from the air. The water then evaporates and cooler air enters your home while warm air stays out.

An evaporative cooling unit is capable of reducing the temperature in a home by about 15-40 degrees. If you’re in the southwestern U.S. where the climate is dry, evaporative coolers are for you. An evaporative cooling unit is easier to install and doesn’t cost half as much as a central air conditioner.

Mechanical-Compression Refrigeration Systems

Mechanical compression is used in commercial and industrial refrigeration, as well as air conditioning. Most HVAC companies install this type of cooling system.

By mechanically compressing refrigerant into a cold liquid with low pressure and expanding it into hot gas with high pressure, this type of system transfers heat. Refrigerants work when pressure is applied or removed. When they absorb heat, they boil and turn into gas, then turn back into liquid form when they release that heat. The refrigerant in a mechanical-compression system boils at 40 degrees, sucking the heat out of warm indoor air.

Absorption

The process in absorption refrigeration is similar to how heat is transferred in mechanical compression. However, instead of using a mechanical compressor, absorption systems use refrigerants that attract and absorb other substances. In some systems, for example, ammonia acts as the refrigerant and water acts as the absorbent. Instead of relying on electric power, heat can come from water, natural gas, steam or other fuel sources.

Thermoelectric

These systems don’t need water or any type of refrigerant. They rely on a thermocouple and electric current. One end of the thermocouple is hot and the other end is cool when current is directed to it. The cold side of the thermocouple is placed in the area that needs cooled so it can attract heat and remove it from the air. Thermoelectric refrigeration isn’t usually used for large cooling loads, but it’s perfect for hard-to-access small cooling loads. A good example would be electronic systems.

What is the difference between a fixed speed and an inverter air con?

Inverter or non-inverter? This is the question we get quite a lot from homeowners and business owners that want to purchase a new air con. As you already know, different factors such as building size, floor plan, price and energy usage need to be considered in the search for the best results. These days, though, you may find that most air conditioners are inverter models.

Before you choose an air conditioner, you may wonder: ‘Should I choose a fixed speed or an inverter air con?’ In order to decide which one is better, you must first understand the difference between the two types.

Let’s look at the mechanism behind both systems, so that you can make the best choice possible.

A fixed speed, also known as non-inverter or standard air conditioner, features a single speed motor operation: on and off. Basically, once it reaches the desired temperature, it turns off, then back on when the temperature rises to a set level. In other words, this standard compressor always runs at full speed or stops completely depending on the temperature requirements.

This model may be a good option if you are on a budget and you want to save on upfront costs. Since there aren’t many components to deal with, repair charges are usually cheaper as well.

On the other hand, due to their ‘on and off’ cycle, fixed speed air cons use a significant amount of energy. That means they are much less efficient compared to modern technologies. They also fail to keep a constant temperature in your home or office, thanks to the system limitations.

So if flexibility, performance and energy efficiency are on top of your priorities list, then you may want to take a look at an inverter air conditioner system.

Inverter technology is typically considered to be a better choice if you’re looking for the optimal domestic or commercial air con performance.

Technically, the inverter air con controls and varies the speed of the compressor motor, similar to a car. The compressor from the outdoor unit doesn’t have to switch on and off continuously. In exchange, it speeds up or down when necessary in order to keep a constant, comfortable temperature at all times.

Plus, due to its efficient operation, there is less stress on the compressor, as well as on the other parts of the system. That means you’ll save money not only on electricity but also on maintenance. What’s more, an inverter air con features higher energy ratings than a non-inverter one, which makes it friendly with the environment, too.

Inverter vs. Non-Inverter Air Conditioner Unit: Pros & Cons

Singaporean heat is no joke. Homes and offices in Singapore can get so hot that a cooling system has practically been deemed essential nationwide. As something so vital to the comfort of everyday living, buying the right air conditioner is a must! You’ll need an air conditioner that not only keeps your place cool and comfortable, but suits your specific, individual needs as well.

The two popular options for air conditioners in Singapore are the inverter aircon and the non-inverter aircon. Both can cool down or warm your place up—but they’re quite difficult to tell apart! Thus, it’s best to familiarize yourself with each air conditioner type to be able to choose which one would suit your home or business more.

In a nutshell, inverter aircons are advanced machines that utilize a controlled compressor, while non-inverter air conditioners are less advanced with a default compressor, though generally less expensive and much more common. Though they may seem similar, the inverter aircon and the non-inverter aircon are distinctive from each other in a myriad of ways such as in functionality, how each unit actually works, their built-in features, and more. Read on to find out the differences between each type!

Inverter vs. Non-Inverter Aircon: Category Comparison

Compressor Unit

This is the main difference between the two systems, as the inverter aircon has a different compressor motor running its system than the non-inverter aircon.

The compressor refers to the part of the aircon unit that compresses the refrigerant gas into a liquid form. Once this occurs, the refrigerant begins to cool, creating the cool air that regulates the temperature in the room.

Inverter aircons operate with a controllable compressor unit. When cooling or heating is required, the compressor works harder to increase or decrease its output. With a non-inverter aircon, however, there’s no way to control the compressor, and so the non-inverter aircon will cool the room either by operating at either its full capacity or not running at all.

Functionality and Efficiency

As an inverter aircon controls the compressor speed and changes the temperature as required, the inverter aircon is a more likely choice for when you need to save electricity, as it limits energy consumption. The way a non-inverter type functions can cause excessive and unnecessary use of energy, and will more often than not inadvertently rack up your electricity bill. Inverter aircons are inherently more energy-efficient and will help you save on your monthly bills. Also, because of this energy-efficient feature, inverter aircons are regarded as an environmentally-friendly system as it uses 30-50% less energy than a non-inverter type.

Performance

The inverter aircon is a more versatile and flexible unit due to the controlled compressor system. It will adjust to the temperature you’ve set for the room and will adjust its processes based on what the thermostat senses. This versatility usually makes inverter aircons winners in terms of performance, as non-inverter aircons operate on a fixed level of cooling power. Generally though, both inverter and non-inverter aircons do a fine job of cooling a room, so your decision should take other factors into consideration.

Costs

This is probably the one aspect where non-inverter aircons will win out against an inverter aircon, as non-inverter aircons are much cheaper. Really, the primary drawback of an inverter aircon is the initial price to pay upon buying one. Installation costs are also significantly higher with an inverter unit.

However, many will argue that the costs involved with an inverter unit should be considered as an investment, as an inverter type is a more versatile and advanced machine compared to a non-inverter. Not to mention, if you’ll be using the AC for long-term, you’ll be saving much more money on electricity bills than if you were to get an inverter-type.

Diesel Engine Basics

A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses compression ignition to ignite the fuel as it is injected into the engine.

DIESEL ENGINES VS. GASOLINE ENGINES

It is helpful to an understanding of how diesel engines work to compare the differences between a diesel engine and a gasoline engine. The main differences between a gasoline engine and a diesel engine are:

• A gasoline engine takes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it, and ignites the mixture with a spark. A diesel engine takes air, compresses it, and then injects fuel into the compressed air. The heat of the compressed air ignites the fuel spontaneously. A diesel engine does not contain a spark plug.

• A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio of the diesel engine leads to better efficiency.

• Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, in which the air and fuel are mixed long before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection, in which the fuel is injected just prior to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). In a gasoline engine, therefore, all of the fuel is loaded into the cylinder during the intake stroke and then compressed. The compression of the fuel/air mixture limits the compression ratio of the engine - if it compresses the air too much, the fuel/air mixture spontaneously ignites and causes knocking. Diesel engines use direct fuel injection i.e. diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder. A diesel engine compresses only air, so the compression ratio can be much higher. The higher the compression ratio, the more power generated.

• Diesel fuel injectors, unlike gasoline injectors, must be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside the cylinder and still deliver the fuel in a fine mist. To ensure that the mist is evenly distributed throughout the cylinder, some diesel engines are equipped with special induction valves or pre-combustion chambers. Newer diesel engines are equipped with high-pressure common rail fuel systems. See Diesel Fuel System Basics for more information on this type of fuel system.

• Diesel engines may be equipped with a glow plug. When a diesel engine is cold, the compression process may not raise the air temperature high enough to ignite the fuel. The glow plug is an electrically heated wire that facilitates fuel ignition when the engine is cold. Glow plugs are typically found on small diesel engines. Gasoline engines do not require glow plugs as they do not rely on spontaneous combustion.

Working Principle of Diesel Engine Cooling System

This post will introduce the working principle and components of diesel engine cooling system in detail. It is worth taking a few time to read it.

Diesel engines are heat-generating sources. They are cooled by circulating a water-based coolant through a water jacket, which is part of the engine. The coolant is circulated through pipes to the radiator to remove the heat added to the coolant by the engine and then back to the engine.

The typically components of the cooling system are:

1. Water pumps

2. Heat removing device (radiator or heat exchanger)

3. Coolant expansion tanks (surge tanks)

4. Temperature control valves

5. Temperature and pressure switches and indicators

6. Pipes

Please note that the engine water cooling systems are either closed or open systems. Closed system is designed to use the same coolant with a closed circuit, preventing the losses of the coolant. While the open system uses the coolant once and discharges it or recirculates the coolant through systems, which cool the coolant by evaporation. Most of the stationary diesel engines use closed systems to control the chemistry of the coolant to prevent fouling of heat transfer surfaces and to closely control the temperatures.

In general, diesel generator cooling system has the following functions:

1. Cooling the engine cylinders via water jacket

2. Cooling the lube oil via lube oil cooler

3. Cooling combustion air via after cooler on turbo-charged engines

Although there are various types of pumps used in diesel engine cooling systems, two pumps are often used for two circuits systems. One is Engine driven pump, the other is electrical driven pump (It is used to circulate the coolant to keep the engine warm when the engine is not running.)

A high-powered diesel engine is very hard on the coolant. Additive-depleted coolant will not only allow liner cavitation but cause premature failure of the head gaskets, radiator, water pump, freeze plugs, heater core and thermostat.

Maintenance

Many diesel engines issues are caused by lacking proper maintenance.

First, check the additive level should be a part of maintenance schedule. Since the diesel engines have such a large liquid capacity, cooling system test strips are offered to check the level of additives. If the level is low, a bottle of SCA can be mixed in to renew the coolant without a complete change.

Second, when you are going to buy coolant, make sure it is compatible with a diesel engine, not automotive or light-truck use, which means gasoline powered.

Want to know about which brand of diesel generator is better, email me at: sales@dieselgeneratortech.com

Understanding The Basics Of Diesel Fuel Systems

Oil derivatives are the dominant source of fuel for transportation systems. You have probably seen news coverage of “hydrogen” and “electric” powered vehicles, but these sources are still very much in their infancy. Gasoline is the primary fuel source for cars, trucks, and other passenger vehicles, but regular gasoline systems are not the only systems available. Diesel systems are the preferred types for commercial vehicles, cargo ships, and trains.

In theory, gasoline and diesel fuel systems are remarkably similar. They are both internal combustion engines and they both convert chemical reactions into mechanical energy. Both systems use a series of pistons to compress fuel and air before igniting it. The difference between the two systems is how energy is created within them.

In a gasoline engine, gas and air are mixed then compressed and ignited with sparks from the spark plug. In a diesel engine, air is compressed and then the gasoline is introduced. When the air is compressed, it heats up and the compressed air ignites the gas.

The differences between gasoline and diesel fuel systems do not stop at the combustion methods. Both systems also use entirely different fuels. Diesel is heavier and oilier than gasoline, so it evaporates more slowly. Additionally, diesel emits fewer compounds that are associated with global warming, like CO2 and methane. However, diesel fuel does emit more nitrogen compounds, which is associated with acid rain and smog.

Since diesel engines mix in the fuel after the air is compressed, they are able to exercise more control over how much is utilized. In fact, these engines are considered one of the most fuel-efficient transportation systems. This is why vehicles with diesel systems dominate the commercial and freight industries.

The components of diesel fuel systems

A basic diesel fuel system is made up of five essential components. These are the tank, the fuel transfer pump, filters, the injection pump, and the injection nozzles.

The fuel tanks in diesel systems are typically crafted from aluminum alloys or sheet metal. The tanks are designed to contain the diesel fuel and survive its long-term corrosive effects.

The transfer pump sucks the diesel fuel out of the tank to move it into the injection pump. The transfer pump is generally located outside of the fuel tank or on the rear of the injection pump. In a few situations, transfer pumps are also located within the tank.

Diesel, like gasoline, is always mixed with contaminants that can damage the combustion system. The fact that diesel is refined, stored, transported on trucks, then stored again at gasoline stations ensures that contaminants will enter the fuel. To address these concerns, filters are placed between the transfer pump and injection system. The filter removes dirt and other contaminants that could easily damage the fuel injection system.

The injection pump compresses the fuel in preparation for injection. Injection nozzles spray diesel into the combustion chamber of the cylinders. The combustion chamber enables the car to convert the miniature combustions (explosions) into mechanical energy that turns the vehicle’s wheels.

At Kendrick Oil, we distribute a wide variety of wholesale fuels, including diesel and regular gasoline. If your business is in need of wholesale fuel or if you want to learn more about any of our products and services, give us a call at (800) 299-3991. You can also Contact Us by email for details. We have locations in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas.

Charge Air Cooling

In modern engines, it is also important to ensure the temperature of the charge does not become excessive. In modern boosted engines, this is a real possibility. Excessive temperatures can lead to reduced charge density and higher combustion temperatures which can affect torque, power and emissions.

While turbochargers and superchargers increase charge air density, they also increase the temperature of the air in the intake manifold. This arrangement with intake air compression with no subsequent cooling was suitable for applications such as North American heavy-duty diesel engines until the 1990s. As emission standards became increasingly stringent, additional increases in charge air density were needed. While this could be achieved through compression to higher pressures, this would require more expensive compression equipment and would further increase cycle temperatures. On the other hand, if intake manifold temperature could be reduced, the intake density could be further increased and more air could be supplied to the engine without necessarily increasing the intake manifold pressure. While this would require a compressor capable of higher flow, the cost would be considerably less than a compressor that was also capable of higher pressures. Cooling the air with a heat exchanger as it leaves the compressor is a common way to achieve this charge air cooling. Such a heat exchanger is referred to as a charge air cooler (CAC), intercooler or aftercooler (Figure 1). These terms are commonly used interchangeably. The term intercooler refers to the fact that this heat exchanger performs its task in between two stages of compression, i.e., between compression in the compressor and compression in the cylinder of the engine. The term aftercooler refers to the charge air being cooled after being compressed in the compressor. Increasing demand for improvements in fuel economy and exhaust emissions has made the charge air cooler an important component of most modern turbocharged engines.

Piston rings have triple purpose

Piston rings seal the combustion chamber. They are set with precision so as to apply the correct pressure on the cylinder wall or liner, which ensures there is a consistent film of oil across the cylinder's working surfaces. This provides sufficient lubrication and protects against wear.

Piston rings from Perkins come as three rings. They are the top compression ring, then the intermediate compression ring and finally the oil control ring. These parts are relatively small in size but play a large role in the main cylinder block of your engine.

Their function is to seal off gases generated in the internal combustion process, help with transferring heat to the cylinder wall and then to both lubricate and scrape down oil from it. Getting the quantities of oil right is vital. Too much oil will cause it to burn off during combustion potentially making your engine produce blue smoke, too little will cause the engine ultimately to seize.

The primary role of the top compression ring is to seal off the majority of the combustion gases to ensure you get the maximum power output from your engine. Any failure or weakening of the piston ring in this area means your engine is working less efficiently than it should.

The bottom ring is responsible for most of the oil control, helping to make sure the right amount of oil is used to lubricate the working surfaces of the cylinder, while the intermediate ring helps with both functions, playing a finishing role in the combustion sealing as well as the downward oil scraping.

The result of these three rings working in harmony is sufficient lubrication within the cylinder bore, ensuring that no undue wear occurs at any time.

How Long Do Piston Rings Last?

Piston rings are a vital engine component since they seal the gap between the piston and the cylinder walls. High quality and long lasting piston rings are a must for all types of engines.

So, how long do piston rings usually last? Piston rings are typically built to last as long as the engine. As a result, piston rings usually last somewhere between 50,000 miles to 250,000 miles depending on their maintenance.

On an average, the life expectancy of piston rings is around 100,000 miles. One has to replace piston rings if they are damaged or worn out.

Life Expectancy Of Piston Rings

Piston rings are typically built to last as long as the engine. Since motorcycle engines last somewhere between 50,000 miles to 250,000 miles, piston rings should last around the same lifetime as well. On an average, piston rings should last around 100,000 miles.

Again, this is a highly subjective number depending on how good your maintenance is, the piston rings quality, and several external factors including engine oil levels, riding conditions (dusty regions are bad), etc.

If the piston rings are worn out or get damaged at a faster rate, then you might have to replace the piston rings far far earlier than their expected lifetime.

When Should You Replace Piston Ring

Firstly, if your engine has run more than 100,000 miles, then probably it is time for replacing the piston rings. But, do not go to all the lengths of removing the engine cylinder and taking the piston just to replace the piston rings if you are not facing any issues with the engine.

Rather, let things continue as long as there are no problems occuring.

However, as soon as you face a problem and have to repair an engine component, it is best practice to inspect piston rings and replace them if the engine has run more than 100,000 miles.

This is because if you are reworking on an engine component, its best to inspect all parts since you don’t want to go back to it again after sometime. Any work on the engine components like piston, piston rings, crankcase components, cylinder – are all cumbersome, time consuming and most of all, a costly affair.

Other times when you need to replace piston rings are when these rings are damaged or worn out.

Bad piston rings will cause more damage to both the cylinder walls as well as the engine itself. It’s better to replace the bad piston rings early rather than wait for it to damage other components.

Also, you cannot repair piston rings. Any sign of damage, just replace it. There is no easy way out here.

Replacement Cost Of Piston Rings

While piston rings cost around $50 to $200, replacement cost of piston rings is more than $2000.

This is because replacing piston rings is a laborious task. Although piston rings themselves doesn’t cost much themselves, the labor charges will be too high since piston rings replacement means taking out the engine cylinder head, removing piston from the engine, and then replacing the rings.

Typically, all this process will take around 10 hours altogether. As a result, the labor cost is far too high and costs so much for a simple piston rings replacement.

How Do I Know If My Piston Rings Are Bad

If the piston rings are damaged or worn out, there is no direct method to determine it. However, there are several symptoms which combined together will indicate that the piston rings have gone bad and should be replaced immediately.

First and foremost sign of bad piston rings is if you are seeing white or gray smoke coming out of the exhaust. White smoke is a clear indication that the engine oil is getting burnt in the combustion chamber. And the oil can only enter the combustion chamber if the piston rings are not sealing the piston and cylinder correctly.

In the same vein, if the engine is being consumed excessively and you are constantly seeing low engine oil levels despite several top ups, it is mostly likely because the piston rings are bad and are allowing the oil to moves into the combustion chamber to get burnt.

Apart from the indications from oil, you can also suspect bad piston rings from the engine. If the engine power and acceleration is consistently low, then the culprit is either the inlet and exhaust ports or the piston rings.

To pin point the culprit, you can test the engine compression. If the engine compression is considerably lower, then it is without a doubt certain that the piston rings are damaged and are not working properly. Here is a detailed post on on

To pin point the culprit, you can test the engine compression. If the engine compression is considerably lower, then it is without a doubt certain that the piston rings are damaged and are not working properly. Here is a detailed post on on signs of bad piston rings for more details.

One last sign of bad piston rings is piston slapping. If you hear piston slapping noise across the inner cylinder walls, then the piston rings are worn out and the gap between the piston and the cylinder walls have widened out.

Reasons for Cylinder Liner Wear and Ways to Measure it

All types of ship machines and parts get worn out due to continuous usage and working. Proper maintenance and routine checks are necessary to ensure that the machines work for a longer time. In this article, we will have a look at various reasons that lead to cylinder liner wear and how it can be minimised.

Reasons for Cylinder Liner Wear

The wear in the cylinder liner is mainly because of following reasons:-

1) Due to friction.
2) Due to corrosion.
3) Abrasion
4) Scuffing or Adhesion

Frictional Wear:

Whenever two surfaces slide over each other, friction is produced which leads to wearing down of both the surfaces. In liner wear, the surfaces are piston rings sliding over the cylinder liner. The frictional wear depends upon various factors like speed of movement between the surfaces, material involved, temperature, the load on engine, pressure, maintenance, lubrication, and combustion efficiency.

Corrosion:

The cylinder liner wear due to corrosion is caused due to these reasons:
– Burning of heavy fuel oil in the combustion space:
This happens because heavy fuel oil contains high sulfur content. During combustion, acids are formed inside the space which should be neutralised by cylinder oil which is alkaline in nature. The production of acids will be more if sulfur content is more, leading to the formation of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is formed due to absorption of the condensate or moisture present inside the combustion space.

– Lower combustion chamber temperature because of reduced service load:

As the low load operation of the marine engine is gaining popularity, it also leads to low temperature in the combustion chamber. If the cylinder oil quantity is not matched properly with the load, it may lead to corrosion of liner.

Sulphuric acid corrosion is found more in the lower part of the liner as the temperature of jacket water is very low. Corrosion due to sulfur will be high due to the presence of water in fuel and condensate in the air. This wear is generally seen between the quills. The wear near the quills enlarges and gives a characteristic of the clover leaf shape to the wear pattern. This phenomenon is called clover leafing.

How the piston worksWhen the engine is running, the piston moves up and down in the cylinder. When the piston reaches the turning point, it slows down and then accelerates again suddenly. This produces inertia forces that act on the piston. When considered together with the forces generated by the gas pressure, this forms the piston force, which is transferred to the connecting rod and crankshaft. Connecting rods are only perfectly vertical at the upper and lower turning points. The angle of the connecting rod presses the piston against the side of the cylinder wall. The amount and direction of this force constantly change during the combustion cycle, as they depend on the piston force and the angle between the piston crown and connecting rod axis. Pistons are equipped with piston rings. They seal the combustion and working chamber in relation to the crankcase. They also remove the oil from the cylinder walls, thus controlling the oil consumption. Piston rings also discharge the heat absorbed by the piston during combustion to the cooled running surface of the cylinder liner.

Use And Care Of Reagent Bottles

Many of our kits include reagent bottles for steeping and storing bitters. This type of bottle has been used to store chemicals for at least 150 years, though the idea for the ground glass stopper dates back to the late 1700s. The combination of glass bottle and stopper makes the container very resistant to chemical corrosion with a few exceptions. Very strong alkali should not be stored in these bottles because the alkali can cause the stopper to corrode and fuse to the neck of the bottle. Also, hydrofluoric acid should never be stored in glass containers because it will actually dissolve the glass.

Reagent bottles that have been used in a laboratory or otherwise used to store chemicals should not be used for storing food or drinks. The bottles in our kits are always brand new but they may contain a white residue from the process of grinding the neck and stopper so they should always be washed before use.

Bottles typically come in two colors: clear and amber. Clear bottles are ideal for displaying items and amber bottles protect the contents from light. Sizes range from 30 ml (1 ounce) up to 20000 ml (about 5 gallons) and the larger ones may be used to store preserved biological specimens in the lab. The large ones also make excellent terrariums or miniature aquariums.

Because glass expands and contracts with changes in temperature, care must be taken when reagent bottles are heated and cooled. When a reagent bottle is heated, the neck expands, allowing the tapered stopper to drop farther into the bottle. When the bottle is then cooled, the neck shrinks around the stopper, locking it in place. The rough surface of the neck and stopper prevents the stopper from sliding up as the neck shrinks. With a large enough change in temperature, the neck of the bottle can actually crack if it shrinks too tight around the stopper. Additionally, if hot liquid is poured into the bottle, the liquid will form an air-tight seal between the stopper and bottle, and as the liquid and steam in the bottle cool and shrink, the stopper will be pulled down into the bottle neck. This is the same principle that makes the center of a canning jar lid pop down until the seal is released.

Things You Should Know Before Using Bottles

When pouring hot liquids into a reagent bottle or placing the bottle in the refrigerator, the lid should be propped open with a toothpick or other small object until the liquid and bottle are cool. Another way to seal the bottle while preventing the lid from sticking is to place a sheet of plastic wrap loosely over the bottle neck before pushing the stopper down.

If the lid of your bottle does get stuck, there are ways to rescue it without breaking it. (You may want to wear leather gloves while trying to remove a stuck stopper in case the bottle or stopper breaks.) Stuck stoppers often cause small chips around the mouth of the bottle. Use a small piece of fine grit wet sandpaper to smooth the edges of the chips.

1. Grasp the bottle in both hands with your fingers around the bottle and your thumbs against the edge of the stopper. Push against the edge of the stopper. Rotate the bottle and try again until you feel a small pop. It may take several rotations and "pops" before the lid is loose enough to remove.

2. If the first step didn't work, try running the bottle under warm water while keeping the lid dry. The greater the temperature difference between the bottle and stopper, the more likely the stopper will come loose. Once the bottle is warm, dry it and repeat the steps above.

3. If that still doesn't work, place a slightly crumpled piece of foil on a rack in the middle of an oven. The foil should be about 1.5 times the height of the bottle or larger. Lay the bottle on its side on the foil with enough extra foil under the top of the bottle to keep the lid from hitting the oven rack if it falls out. Heat the bottle gently by starting at 250°. Increase the temperature by 10-20° every 15 minutes until the stopper loosens. You can pull the bottle out and try step one wearing heat-resistant gloves but the lid should eventually get loose enough to fall out on its own.

4. If all of that fails, let the bottle slowly cool to room temperature. Wearing a heat-resistant glove and safety glasses, hold the bottle upside down over a folded towel, and use a torch to heat the neck of the bottle. The lid should eventually fall out onto the towel. This rapid heating can cause the bottle to crack so use caution.

5. If none of those things work and you absolutely must get the contents out of the bottle, use a chisel and hammer to gently chip away the neck of the bottle around the stopper. If the contents you are rescuing are your bitters, filter them thoroughly to remove any glass slivers.
   

Chemical Labels

Reagent bottles are labeled using a system which includes a "hybrid" hazard labeling system.

When reagents arrive from the manufacturer, the labels are intended to communicate the hazards and precautions of handling a particular chemical to the researchers and professionals who will be using the chemical. Much of this information is also included in compliance with HCS legislation, to protect the manufacturer from liability for any accidents which occur during handling of the chemical.

Unfortunately for students in undergraduate-level teaching labs, this information carries little meaning, or is simply not interpreted correctly because the average undergrad hasn't had the training and education to fully understand the information presented. Therefore the CS uses a simpler labeling system for the reagent bottles used by the students in the teaching labs. This system is a "hybrid" because it presents important information in a simpler and clearer format which is easy to understand, and also incorporates elements of both the NFPA and HMIS hazard labeling systems.

The label consists of several parts:

• Chemical name: Lists the name of the chemical. Many chemicals have several synonyms due to various systems of nomenclature. This can get a little confusing, so the most commonly-used name (according to the texts used for the teaching labs, but more often the name recommended by the IUPAC nomenclature system) will appear here.

• Chemical synonyms: Lists other names of the chemical, if there are any. For instance, "rock salt" would be listed as a synonym of the chemical "sodium chloride."

• Hazard rating: The hazard rating of the chemical. These ratings are usually published by the NFPA as Standards (NFPA 49 and 325, for example). If a chemical has no published NFPA rating, then HMIS/HMIG ratings are used instead, based on manufacturer information. A blank hazard rating on a chemical does not mean the chemical is harmless! On the contrary; it means that the chemical has not been rated by the NFPA or is not contained in any other published source of hazard ratings. Chemicals with blank hazard ratings should be treated as dangerous. Reagents which are not pure chemicals (for instance, aqueous salt solutions) will not include a hazard rating diamond on their labels.

• Specific hazards: Based on the hazard rating, words appearing here draw your attention to specific hazards of the chemical or reagent. CORROSIVE! or POISON! will appear if the health (blue) rating is 3 or greater. FLAMMABLE! will appear if the flammability (red) rating is 3 or greater. EXPLOSIVE! or EXTREMELY REACTIVE! will appear if the reactivity (yellow) rating is 3 or greater, and WATER-REACTIVE! will appear if the chemical or reagent is water-reactive. In cases where the hazard rating is unknown, specific hazards may still be known and will be identified.

Guide to Laboratory Bottles and Jars

Laboratory bottles and jars

Laboratory bottles and jars hold and store chemicals in a variety of different types of laboratories. They come in a wide range of shapes and sizes for various applications, and can be made of glass or plastic.

Types of Bottles and Jars

The chart below lists the different types and shapes of bottles and jars as well as a description and their application.

Bottle Type/ShapeDescriptionNarrow MouthNarrow-mouth bottles feature a smaller opening that is designed for pouring liquids and can be used for storing or shipping liquids.Wide MouthWide-mouth bottles feature a larger opening for easy filling of various types of liquids and solids.SamplingSampling bottles and jars have straight sides and wide mouths for easy filling and removal of samples. Environmental sampling jars can resist breakage, making them good for collecting, transporting and storing of samples for later analysis.SquareSquare bottles can be easily packed next to each other and allow for more bottles to be stored on shelves or cabinets.WashWash bottles shoot a jet of water out of a spout on the side of the bottle. Use them to rinse chemicals and materials from other labware. Some wash bottles have a chemical name and formula printed on them to help prevent cross contamination with other chemicals.

Clear vs. Amber Bottles and Jars

While clear plastic and glass bottles and jars provide maximum transparency of their contents, amber bottles and jars protect light-sensitive products from UV rays that could alter their contents. Amber bottles and jars come in a variety of sizes and materials.

Glass Bottles and Jars

Below are the two most common types of glass used for bottles and jars, their application and temperature range. Type I Borosilicate glass contains at least 5% boric oxide making it more temperature and chemical resistant than Type III Soda Lime Glass.

Both types of glass bottles and jars can be safety coated with a specialized plastic called plastisol that fits tightly to the glass bottle when cooled to provide protection from injuries and leaks should the bottle or jar break.

MaterialApplicationTemperature RangeType I BorosilicateWithstands harsher chemical and thermal conditions than bottles made of soda lime. Bottles and jars made from this glass can go from freezing to hot temperatures or vice versa without breaking.–70°C to 230°CType III Soda LimeOffers some chemical resistance and a smooth surface for easy cleaning. Use for dry powers, buffers or low-heat applications.0°C to 100°CWhat are the Properties of Amber Glass Bottles for Cosmetics?

When you're trying to decide on the right kind of packaging and bottles for your product, it's important to know exactly what you’re getting, and what to expect. With so many options and varieties to choose from, knowing the type of cosmetic bottle that will fit your needs (and the needs of your customers) is crucial.

Amber bottles have seen an increase in popularity in recent years a more minimalistic/ natural approach is trending cosmetics, with consumers looking to decrease their carbon footprint and develop a more sustainable lifestyle.

So, what can you expect from amber bottles? Let’s answer a few common questions so you can make a more informed decision on whether you should use them for your product(s).

Are Composition Shingles and Asphalt Shingles the Same Thing?

The roofing industry is full of different names and terms that are hard to understand as a homeowner. This can be confusing and often frustrating.

Especially when different roofing contractors use different terms to mean the same thing. This brings us to a commonly asked question, “Are composition shingles and asphalt shingles the same thing?”

For over 30 years, the team at Bill Ragan Roofing has helped homeowners understand the lingo, terminology, and other aspects of the roofing industry. Now we'll be doing the same thing for you.

To start this article off, we'll clarify if composition shingles and asphalt shingles are the same. After that, we'll give you 3 things that every homeowner needs to know about a composition shingle roof.

Are composition shingles and asphalt shingles the same thing?

Yes, composition shingles and asphalt shingles are the same thing. It's simply just another term the roofing industry uses for asphalt shingles.

The term “composition” comes from the fact that asphalt shingles are a composite of man-made materials. These materials consist of fiberglass, tar, and granules put on a fiberglass mat to make a shingle.

Insurance companies also call them composition shingles on claims for roof damage. So, if you see “composition” on your insurance claim, there's no reason to panic.

At the end of the day, you might hear different roofing contractors use one or the other. But the majority of the roofing industry uses asphalt shingles.

Things to know about composition (asphalt) shingles

Now you know that composition shingles and asphalt shingles are the same thing. After learning this, you're ready to learn the 3 main things every homeowner needs to know about composition shingles.

1. The 3 types of composition shingles

There are 3 types of composition (asphalt) shingles: 3-tab, architectural (dimensional or laminate), and luxury (shake look or slate look). All 3 shingles have different looks to fit the style you're looking for and your budget.

3-tab shingles lay flat and get their name from the 3 tabs on each shingle strip.

Architectural (dimensional) shingles have a random pattern and shadow lines to give your roof more dimension. Some even simulate the look of a wood shake roof.

Luxury (shake roof and slate roof) shingles are larger and thicker than the other shingles. Most luxury shingles are designed to look like slate tiles, hence the name slate look.

3-tab shingles used to dominate the roofing industry, but now architectural shingles are the most common type installed on roofs today. Luxury shingles are as heavily marketed as architectural shingles, but they're around double the price.

No matter your budget or the look you want, you'll be able to find an asphalt shingle that fits your needs.

2. The materials and components that make up a composition shingle roof

While choosing which shingle you want is the fun part; your composition roof system is much more than the shingles you see from the street. It's a combination of key roofing components and materials that come together to form a complete roof system.

These other roofing materials and components are just as important as the composition shingles themselves.

The main materials and components that make up a composition roof are:

Roof decking

Roof flashing

Underlayment

Drip edge

Ice and water shield

Shingles

Ridge capping

Roof vents

Pipe boots

Flashing

These materials come together to make a complete roof system that protects you and your family. To learn more about the functions of each roofing component and material, click on the hyperlinks attached to the materials or check out the 9 materials included in your roof replacement.

3. The lifespan of composition shingle roof

A composition roof's lifespan is the number of leak-free years you get out of it. Remember the 3 types of composition shingles we discussed earlier? Well, each comes with a specified lifespan from the manufacturer.

3-tab shingles can last up to 25 years and live the shortest of the three types of composition shingles. On the other hand, both architectural and luxury shingles have a lifespan of around 30 years.

But the luxury style is thicker and has the possibility to go over 30 years and up to 50 under the right conditions. As long as the composition shingles are properly installed and your attic is adequately ventilated, they'll get really close to the lifespans above.

However, other factors impact how long a composition roof ultimately lasts.

How much does a composition (asphalt) shingle roof cost?

Now you know 3 things every homeowner needs to know about a composition roof. However, there's still one more crucial thing you need to learn.

This, of course, is how much a composition shingle roof costs. The problem is, the roofing industry avoids talking about pricing or anything else relating to cost.

But here at Bill Ragan Roofing, we do things differently. That's why we wrote another article that gives you the cost of a composition (asphalt) roof and the factors that impact the price of a replacement.

The team at Bill Ragan Roofing has provided homeowners in Nashville and surrounding areas with high-quality asphalt roofing services since 1990. Whether you need repairs or a full roof replacement, you can count on our workmanship backed by a lifetime warranty to take care of your roof for decades to come.

To learn what you can expect to pay for a composition roof replacement, check out How Much a New Asphalt Roof Costs: Pricing, Factors & Considerations.

What Are Laminated Shingles?

You've just gotten off the phone with another Marietta roofing contractor and he only seemed interested in installing laminated shingles on your roof. He's told you that they are his most popular seller, but does that mean they are the best shingle for your roof? Are laminated shingles really that great, or is it just sales hype?

3-TAB AND LAMINATED SHINGLES – WHAT A MARIETTA ROOFING COMPANY KNOWS ABOUT HOW THEY ARE MADE

The difference between laminated and 3-tab shingles is really quite simple. They are both made from the same basic components, but one just uses more of them.

The laminated shingle is essentially a beefed-up version of a 3-tab shingle, so it makes some sense to discuss the simpler 3-tab shingle, first.

Twenty or so years ago, 3-tab shingles were used almost exclusively to cover residential roofs. Today's 3-tab shingle has not changed much, in terms of basic construction and size.

A 1-ft. tall X 3-ft. wide shingle slab is cut with slots at one end to create three tabs, each about 5-in. tall X 12-in. wide. What results is the well-known and widely used “3-tab shingle.”

The shingles are overlapped and nailed in place during installation. After a roof is finished the tabs are the only visible part of each shingle. Those unfamiliar with roofing often assume each tab is an individual shingle.

Of course, now you know what every professional Marietta roofing contractor knows. Each visible “shingle” is, in fact, one of the tabs in a 3-tab shingle.

As suggested earlier, laminated shingles are actually an enhanced, stronger version of a standard 3-tab shingle. Unlike a 3-tab shingle, a laminated shingle has an extra layer under its lower half. This gives the tabs on a laminated shingle a thickness that is twice as deep as it would be otherwise. But why is this thickness necessary?

The primary goal of a laminated shingle is to provide a more natural and deeper look than that offered by a conventional 3-tab shingle. That is why laminated shingles are sometimes called architectural shingles.

A laminated shingle creates depth by featuring tabs of varying widths that are separated by large, randomly spaced gaps. The large spaces between the cut tabs highlights the thickness of the tabs, creating a wonderful, visually appealing effect of depth.

Some laminated shingles employ different shades, tones and even contrasting colors to create an even more distinctive, yet natural appearance.

3-Tab And Laminated Shingles – A Performance Comparison That Every Marietta Roofing Contractor Understands

The next questions to ask is, how does the extra material used in a laminated shingle translate into performance?

By virtue of their heavier construction, laminated shingles are able to last longer than 3-tab shingles. With more protective asphalt, granules and fiberglass per square foot, laminated shingles can resist sun, heat, impact and water damage more effectively and for a longer time than 3-tab shingles can.

This is reflected, in general, by longer warranty times and higher wind ratings for laminated shingles.

A side-by-side comparison of 3-tab and laminated shingles is presented below. Note that the warranty information provided is generic in nature and provided for reference, only. You should confirm product specific shingle warranty details with your Marietta roofing contractor before you make any purchasing decisions.

How Long Can You Expect Your Asphalt Roof to Last?

When investing in a new roof, you're expecting to get as many years out of it as possible. This is especially true for an asphalt roof.

One of the most crucial questions customers ask is how long their asphalt roof will last. While a roofing contractor can say 25 or 30 years, you're probably wondering if it'll actually last that long.

Luckily, we're here to help you understand the lifespan of your asphalt roof.

The team at Bill Ragan Roofing has been installing asphalt roofs in the Nashville area since 1990. We know what it takes to maximize the life of your roof with our workmanship and attention to detail.

The truth is, you should get pretty close to the manufacturer's lifespan of your roofing materials. But there are a number of factors that ultimately determine how much life you'll get out of your asphalt roof.

By the end of this article, you'll know how long your asphalt roof should last and the factors that affect its lifespan. And to help save time and make your research a little easier, grab the Asphalt Roof Replacement Cheat Sheet at the very end.

How long will your asphalt roof last?

There are three types of asphalt shingles, 3-tab, dimensional, and luxury. But for this article, we're going to use the two most common asphalt shingles, 3-tab and dimensional, as examples.

3-tab shingles generally come with a 25-year manufacturer warranty. Dimensional shingles come with a 30-year manufacturer warranty.

Vented properly and installed correctly, you should get around 80-85% of the life span out of an asphalt roof. That means you can expect to get about 20-22 years out of your 3-tab shingle roof and 25-28 years out of your dimensional shingles.

Are You Storing Food Safely?

Whether putting food in the refrigerator, the freezer, or the cupboard, you have plenty of opportunities to prevent foodborne illnesses.

The goal is to keep yourself and others from being sickened by microorganisms such as Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7, and C. botulinum, which causes botulism. Keeping foods chilled at proper temperatures is one of the best ways to prevent or slow the growth of these bacteria.

These food storage tips can help you steer clear of foodborne illnesses.

Storage Basics

• Refrigerate or freeze perishables right away. Foods that require refrigeration should be put in the refrigerator as soon as you get them home. Stick to the "two-hour rule" for leaving items needing refrigeration out at room temperature. Never allow meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, or produce or other foods that require refrigeration to sit at room temperature for more than two hours—one hour if the air temperature is above 90° F. This also applies to items such as leftovers, "doggie bags," and take-out foods. Also, when putting food away, don't crowd the refrigerator or freezer so tightly that air can't circulate.

• Keep your appliances at the proper temperatures. Keep the refrigerator temperature at or below 40° F (4° C). The freezer temperature should be 0° F (-18° C). Check temperatures periodically. Appliance thermometers are the best way of knowing these temperatures and are generally inexpensive.

• Check storage directions on labels. Many items other than meats, vegetables, and dairy products need to be kept cold. If you've neglected to properly refrigerate something, it's usually best to throw it out.

• Use ready-to-eat foods as soon as possible. Refrigerated ready-to-eat foods such as luncheon meats should be used as soon as possible. The longer they're stored in the refrigerator, the more chance Listeria, a bacterium that causes foodborne illness, can grow, especially if the refrigerator temperature is above 40° F (4° C).

• Be alert for spoiled food. Anything that looks or smells suspicious should be thrown out. Mold is a sign of spoilage. It can grow even under refrigeration. Mold is not a major health threat, but it can make food unappetizing. The safest practice is to discard food that is moldy.

• Be aware that food can make you very sick even when it doesn't look, smell, or taste spoiled. That's because foodborne illnesses are caused by pathogenic bacteria, which are different from the spoilage bacteria that make foods "go bad." Many pathogenic organisms are present in raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, milk, and eggs; unclean water; and on fruits and vegetables. Keeping these foods properly chilled will slow the growth of bacteria.

• Following the other recommended food handling practices will further reduce your risk of getting sick — clean your hands, surfaces and produce, separate raw foods from ready-to-eat foods, and cook to safe temperatures.

Refrigeration Tips

• Marinate food in the refrigerator. Bacteria can multiply rapidly in foods left to marinate at room temperature. Also, never reuse marinating liquid as a sauce unless you bring it to a rapid boil first.

• Clean the refrigerator regularly and wipe spills immediately. This helps reduce the growth of Listeria bacteria and prevents drips from thawing meat that can allow bacteria from one food to spread to another. Clean the fridge out frequently.

• Keep foods covered. Store refrigerated foods in covered containers or sealed storage bags, and check leftovers daily for spoilage. Store eggs in their carton in the refrigerator itself rather than on the door, where the temperature is warmer.

• Check expiration dates. A "use by" date means that the manufacturer recommends using the product by this date for the best flavor or quality. The date is not a food safety date. At some point after the use-by date, a product may change in taste, color, texture, or nutrient content, but, the product may be wholesome and safe long after that date. If you're not sure or if the food looks questionable, throw it out.

• The exception to this is infant formula. Infant formula and some baby foods are unique in that they must be used by the use-by date that appears on the package.

Freezer Facts

• Food that is properly frozen and cooked is safe. Food that is properly handled and stored in the freezer at 0° F (-18° C) will remain safe. While freezing does not kill most bacteria, it does stop bacteria from growing. Though food will be safe indefinitely at 0° F, quality will decrease the longer the food is in the freezer. Tenderness, flavor, aroma, juiciness, and color can all be affected. Leftovers should be stored in tight containers. With commercially frozen foods, it's important to follow the cooking instructions on the package to assure safety.

• Freezing does not reduce nutrients. There is little change in a food's protein value during freezing.

• Freezer burn does not mean food is unsafe. Freezer burn is a food-quality issue, not a food safety issue. It appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food. It can occur when food is not securely wrapped in air-tight packaging, and causes dry spots in foods.

• Refrigerator/freezer thermometers should be monitored. Refrigerator/freezer thermometers may be purchased in the housewares section of department, appliance, culinary, and grocery stores. Place one in your refrigerator and one in your freezer, in the front in an easy-to-read location. Check the temperature regularly—at least once a week.

Choosing containers to freeze food

Every year consumers call the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Meat and Poultry Hotline and Michigan State University Extension asking if food items are safe in their home freezers. Understanding the concepts from the USDA can help avoid some of the freezing confusion.

Freezing food and maintaining it at 0° Fahrenheit will keep it safe. The quality could suffer during lengthy freezer storage. Freezing keeps food safe by slowing down the movement of molecules, causing microbes to enter a dormant stage. The freezing process preserves food for extended periods because it prevents the growth of microorganisms that cause both food spoilage and foodborne illness.

Proper packaging materials for freezing food protects the flavor, color, moisture content and nutritive value of foods from the harsh climate inside the freezer. Using inappropriate containers will give your food inadequate protection and reduce the quality of the product.

Exactly which container to choose depends on the type of food to be frozen and your personal preference. Do not freeze fruits and vegetables in containers with a capacity over one-half gallon. Foods in larger containers freeze too slowly which results in an unsatisfactory product. In general, packaging materials must have these characteristics:

• Moisture vapor resistant

• Durable and leak proof

• Do not become brittle and crack at low temperatures

• Resistant to oil, grease and water

• Protect food from absorption of off-flavors or odors

• Easy to seal

• Easy to mark

Cartons for cottage cheese, ice cream and milk do not resist moisture vapor sufficiently to be suitable for long-term freezer storage.

Rigid containers and flexible bags or wrapping are two general types of packaging materials that are safe for freezing.

Rigid containers made of plastic or glass are suitable for all packs and are especially good for liquid packs. Straight sides on rigid containers make the frozen food much easier to remove. Rigid containers are often reusable and make storage in the freezer easier because they can be stacked.

Regular glass jars break easily at freezer temperatures. Choose wide mouth, dual-purpose jars made for freezing and canning if you wish to use glass. These jars have been tempered to withstand extreme temperatures and the wide opening allows easy removal of partially thawed food. Covers on rigid containers should fit tightly, if they do not, reinforce the seal with freezer tape. Freezer tape is especially designed to stick at freezing temperatures.

Flexible freezer bags and moisture vapor resistant wrapping materials such as plastic freezer wrap, freezer paper and heavyweight aluminum foil are also suitable for dry packed products with little or no liquid. Bags can also be used for liquid packs. Bags and wraps work well for foods with irregular shapes. Remove as much air as possible before closing for best results.

Ensure that your efforts to freeze foods result in delicious meals at a later date. Remember that the type of container you choose when freezing food can make a difference in the quality of the end product. Your choice of proper freezer packaging materials makes for tastier food.

The Absolute Best Way to Organize Any Freezer (and Keep It That Way, Once and for All)

An organized freezer means a few things. It means no more boxes of frozen spinach falling on your sensitive little toes. It means your roommates will know better than to move your favorite $12 pint of ice cream to the door where it will likely melt. It means you'll never waste money buying loaves of bread when you already have plenty on hand. And it means you won't have to spend time wiping down packages, should a package of meat leak before it freezes. The point? An organized freezer is incredibly important for any home cook.

So we all want it; why is it so hard to get it? Maybe it's because freezers come in a lot of different sizes and shapes (and so do groceries, obviously). There's no one-size-fits-all formula for organizing a freezer, but we do have plenty of rules and tips that you can keep in mind. Certain items should go in certain zones of your freezer, and there are plenty of things you can do to add order. Find your freezer type (or types, if you have a bonus freezer in the basement!) below and get to organizing. Our first tip: Have a cooler and/or insulated bags on hand to hold your groceries while you work.

First, the 8 Organizing Rules for Any Kind of Freezer

Let's start with some general tips to keep in mind — no matter which type of freezer you have.Line things up from back to front. Always put stuff new towards the back and pull the older stuff (the stuff that needs to be eaten first) to the front.

Label and date anything homemade. The most important tool for an organized freezer is a Sharpie marker (and masking tape, should you need it). Everything homemade in there needs to be clearly labeled and dated the day it's frozen.

Freeze things in usable portions. It might be tempting to just throw the whole value-pack of chicken pieces straight into the freezer, but you'll regret this shortcut later when you only need a few pieces and the whole thing is one frozen mass.

Freeze things flat. As much as possible, freeze things flat. Put that leftover chili in a freezer bag, seal, and lay the bag flat in the freezer until frozen. Flat things of an even thickness are easier to stack or organize upright in a container.

File things vertically. With your stuff nice and flat, you can file it vertically in an organizer and grab what you need, rather than dealing with stacks.

Take things out of boxes when possible. Anything that comes in a box (waffles, ice pops, and chicken nuggets, for example) can likely be taken out of said box to save room. If you need the cooking instructions, cut them out and tape them to the bag.

Pick the right containers. Air circulating around frozen foods can lead to freezer burn, so your best bet is to find a container as close to the size of what you want to freeze as possible. If you're using plastic bags, make sure you use thicker freezer ones, and press out as much air as possible before freezing. If you're using foil, make sure foods are tightly double-wrapped. Doing these things mean you maximize freezer space and keep air out.

Keep a freezer inventory. This will help you keep your freezer organized moving forward. You'll know what you have on hand and what you've used up. Starting (and maintaining) one is easy.

Plastic vs. glass: Which food storage container makes sense for you?

While it can come as a shock to some, plastic and glass storage containers are not wholly interchangeable. Each material provides unique benefits when it comes to organizing the kitchen. If you're unsure which container makes sense for you and your home, it might be time to draw up some conclusions on why these two materials outperform one another in different ways.

Below are our comparisons between glass vs. plastic containers to help you decide which is truly a better option for your kitchen.

Glass is better for the environment

When it comes to durability, longevity, and its ability to be recycled, glass outperforms plastic on environmental impact. If properly cared for, glass can outlast the lifespan of plastic in the kitchen. Where plastic is prone to melting or discoloration, glass remains a durable and long-lasting solution for food storage.

Additionally, glass is one-hundred percent recyclable, and so long as it is properly disposed of, you can recycle glass at a designated facility. Unfortunately, due to the wide variety of plastic products available, many recycling plants only offer recycling to a few types of plastic. Anything non-recyclable is tossed into a landfill, where it remains for many years.

Therefore, glass wins the argument for most environmentally friendly.

Glass provides a healthier alternative

When it comes to health benefits and safety in the kitchen, glass is a better material. But, unfortunately, even BPA-free plastics are prone to releasing toxic chemicals if heated. This makes washing, microwaving, and heating plastic containers a threat to your health. Plastic containers are also prone to warping and melting, creating a challenge when placing them in the dishwasher.

Luckily, glass is heat-tolerant and can be microwaved, heated in the oven, or placed into the dishwasher. Since it is non-porous, glass materials do not absorb or release any toxic chemicals or microscopic particles when used.

If you are looking for a food-safe and family-safe storage solution, glass is the better choice.

Bauxite Facts

Bauxite is a mineral with a dull, earthy luster which is usually white or gray, though sometimes can be found stained by yellow, orange, red, pink, or brown by iron or included iron minerals. It has no cleavage, a low specific gravity, and the Mohs Hardness Scale score is between 1 and 3. Its streak is usually white, but its iron stain can discolor. It has a variable chemical composition but is always rich in aluminum oxides and hydroxides. These are most of the identifying properties for bauxite and are useful for identifying the mineral; however, bauxite is most often processed into another material with properties much different than bauxite.

Interesting Bauxite Facts:

Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminum and crushing it is the first step in producing aluminum, and then purifying it using the Bayer Process.

Bauxite is washed in a hot solution of sodium hydroxide using the Bayer Process, which filters the aluminum from the bauxite.

Aluminum is usually produced where electricity costs are very low.

Bauxite is used as an abrasive. Sintered bauxite is often used as a sand-blasting abrasive produced by crushing bauxite to a powder, and then fusing it using a very high temperature into spherical beads.

The bauxite spherical beads are very hard and durable. They are sorted by size for use in sandblasting equipment and other sandblasting applications. Their spherical shape reduces wear on the delivery equipment.

Sintered bauxite can also be used as an oil field proppant, which ultimately allow for the flow of oil or natural gas out of rocks and into a well. A process known as hydraulic fracturing.

Bauxite resources are adequate throughout the world at current rates, but other materials could be used instead of bauxite include clay minerals, alunite, anorthosite, power plant ash, and oil shale, but at an increased cost.

Silicon carbide could also be used in place of the abrasives made from bauxite, and synthetic mullite may be used in place of bauxite-based refractories.

Small amounts of bauxite can be found in Arkansas, Alabama, and Georgia. Overall, though, there is very little mining of the mineral in the U.S., with 99% of it being imported from other countries.

Around the world, Australia, China, Brazil, India, Guinea, Jamaica, Russia, Kazakhstan, Suriname, and Greece are the top ten leading bauxite producing countries.

The top producers of bauxite have enough reserves for many years of continued production, with some having reserves lasting 100 years.

What is Bauxite?

Bauxite is primarily a metallic mineral though it is also used as an industrial mineral. It is the only ore used for large scale aluminium production. Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the earth’s crust constituting about 8%, it usually occurs in clays, soil and rocks that cannot be utilized for its extraction.

Bauxite ore is soft and red clay, rich in alumina, and its name originates from Les Baux de Provence, It was a French geologist Pierre Berthier who first discovered bauxite near a village southern France in 1821. Later, a French chemist named Henri Sainte-Claire Deville officially termed the substance as “bauxite” in 1861. In any case, Bauxite is a form of sedimentary rock and is the principal source of the popular metal aluminium.

It is usually obtained from the topsoil in various tropical and subtropical regions. The ore is acquired through mining operations and currently, it is concentrated in most developed countries. More than 160 million metric tons of bauxite are mined each year.

Bauxite Formula

From mineralogy point of view, the bauxite formula and chemical composition are tabulated below.

OxideFormulaChemical composition (%wt)MineralogyAluminaAl2O335 to 65Gibbsite, boehmite and diasporeSilicaSiO30.5 to 10Quartz, chalcedony, kaoliniteFerric oxideFe2O32 to 30Geothite, hematite and sideriteTitaniaTiO20.5 to 8Rutile and anataseCalciaCaO0 to 5.5Calcite, magnesite and dolomite

In terms of physical properties, Bauxite formula has a different composition. What it means is that bauxite contains a mixture of oxides like aluminium hydroxides, hydrous aluminium oxides, and minerals like gibbsite, boehmite and diaspore including some clay minerals. It also contains, insoluble materials namely magnetite, quartz, siderite, hematite and goethite. It is usually, yellow, white, beige, grey, reddish-brown, pink and brown.

Mullite - An Introduction

Mullite is the mineralogical name for the only chemically stable intermediate phase in the SiO2–Al2O3 system. The mineral rarely occurs in its natural form and can be found on the Isle of Mull off the western coast of Scotland.

Composition

Mullite is generally represented as 3Al2O3⋅2SiO2 (i.e. 60 mol% Al2O3). But in reality, it is a solid solution that has the equilibrium composition limits of 60–63 mol% Al2O3, below 1600 °C.

Synthetic Mullite

Different starting materials and preparation techniques are used to produce synthetic mullite ceramics. For instance, a mixture of sols, a mixture of solids, or a mixture of salt and sol can be used as the starting materials. Likewise, there is a range of preparation procedures, such as hydrothermal treatment of mixtures of sols, reaction sintering of mechanically combined powders, and chemical vapor deposition.

The properties of mullite are governed by the starting materials used and the preparation technique. Reaction-sintered mullite prepared from mechanically blended powders typically exhibit low fracture toughness (1–2 MPa m-1/2) and low strength (<200 MPa) because of the occurrence of amorphous grain boundary phases. On the other hand, gelation routes yield thoroughly mixed sub-micrometer particles that can be hot-pressed or sintered to make single-phase materials with excellent mechanical properties.

Mechanical properties can be further optimized by creating composites. The addition of Zr2O and SiC yields a fracture toughness of 7 MPa m-1/2 at room temperature.

Mullite in Porcelain

Mullite is also one of the vital ingredients used for making porcelain. Clays with less than 60% Al2O3 turn into mullite. The amount of mullite yielded is directly associated with the calcining temperature and the amount of Al2O3.

• Good electrical resistivity

• Optimal high-temperature strength

• Superior thermal stability

• Good thermal shock resistance

• Resistance to abrasion

• Resistance to oxidation and attack, in furnace atmospheres

• Resistance to a range of chemical attacks; it exhibits outstanding stability in acid metal slags, and is insoluble in a majority of the acids.

Ironstones 07X and Flint Clays 09X

These two rock groups are easily identified by their color and texture. Unweathered specimens of both have distinctive red, orange, yellow, or brown colors.

Ironstone is very hard, and if you scrape a powder with a knife blade, it will effervesce weakly with dilute hydrochloric acid. Ironstones are usually composed of iron-carbonate minerals such as siderite and iron oxides such as goethite, hematite, and limonite, but the exact mineral composition is not required for classification. Most shales contain some ironstone as nodules or void fillings, and this class is restricted to rocks that have more than 50 percent ironstone.

Flint clays are highly variable in color, have a distinctive milky luster, and a conchoidal fracture. Flint clay is a variety of clay-rich rock in which the clay mineral is predominantly kaolinite.

Ironstones and flint clays have additional fabrics according to one of the following categories:

• 0X4 Massive: Homogeneous material with no obvious lines or marks

• 0X5 Mosaic: Divided into fragments; each piece maintains it original position relative to adjacent pieces

• 0X1 Brecciated: Divided into fragments; pieces have rotated relative to adjacent pieces

• 0X6 Nodular: Rounded or irregular masses floating in a matrix of different material

• 0X7 Oolitic (Pisolitic): Numerous, small rounded grains set in a matrix of different material

Kaolini

Kaolin is a type of clay found in nature. It can also be made in a laboratory. People use it to make medicine.

Kaolin is used for mild-to-moderate diarrhea, severe diarrhea (dysentery), and cholera.

In combination products, kaolin is used to treat diarrhea and to relieve soreness and swelling inside the mouth caused by radiation treatments. Some of these combination products are used for treating ulcers and swelling (inflammation) in the large intestine (chronic ulcerative colitis).

Some people apply kaolin directly to the skin in a wet dressing (poultice) or as a dusting powder. It is used to dry or soften the skin.

Kaolin is also used in laboratory tests that help to diagnose disease.

In manufacturing, kaolin is used in tablet preparation and to filter materials and remove color.

Kaolin is also a food additive.

How does it work?

Kaolin acts as a protective coating for the mouth to decrease pain associated with radiation-induced damage.

When it is applied to the skin, kaolin acts as a drying agent.

The Truth About Scented Candles

The Impact Of Fragranced Products

For many people, home wouldn't be the same without scents from candles, room sprays, plug-ins, incense sticks, and oils, filling the air. However, in addition to adding scent, they may also be adding health risks from:

• Paraffin wax

• Lead-core wicks

• Synthetic fragrance

While people with asthma, allergy, or chemical sensitivity are more likely to be impacted by scented candles, exposure to the chemicals they contain isn’t a great for anyone.

Toxins In Scented Candles

Most candles are made of paraffin wax (a petroleum waste product that is chemically bleached), which creates highly toxic benzene and toluene (both are known carcinogens) when burned. In fact, the petro-soot released from paraffin candles are the same as those found in diesel fuel fumes and can be as dangerous at second-hand smoke. In 2001, the EPA concluded that burning paraffin candles emit harmful toxins and increase health risks with multiple exposures.

Candle wicks can also be a source of toxins in scented candles. In the US, candle wicks are supposed to be made of cotton or paper, but lead-core wicks can still be found, especially in products manufactured in China or Taiwan. A candle with a lead-core wick releases five times the amount of lead considered hazardous for children and exceeds EPA pollution standards for outdoor air. You don’t even need to light the candle to be exposed to chemicals, simple evaporation from an uncovered candle can release pollutants into the air and touching a candle can cause absorption of chemicals through the skin.

Don’t want to give up the warm glow of candlelight? Make healthier choices and avoid the toxins in scented candles by opting for candles that are:

• Unscented

• Made from all-natural products like beeswax or soy

• Have paper or 100% cotton wicks

In addition, if you are burning candles to cover up an unpleasant odor, you may be masking a real problem, such as mold or mildew, that can impact your health. If there is a scent in your home that you find unpleasant, track down the source of the odor so you can remedy the problem and not just cover it up!

For more useful tips on improving the health of your home, get your free, personalized Hayward Score report today.

What Are the Benefits of Crystal-Infused Candles?

Crystal-infused candles help you relax, while filling the space with peace and love. But crystal candles do so much more than that.

Also known as intentional or gem candles, crystal-infused candles have been used for thousands of years. Being infused with the energies of various crystals, these candles have different benefits depending on the stones they contain.

Benefits of Crystal-Infused Candles

• Bring love and romance into your private life

• Reduce stress and anxiety

• Promote spiritual and emotional healing

• Bring calmness into your life

• Help you with sleep problems

• Help you feel more grounded and focused

• Elevate the energy of the space around you

• Protect you from negative energy

• Bring clarity of mind and deep peace

At the Village Rock Shop, we offer a wide collection of crystal-infused candles, each with its unique benefit.

• Forgive Tin Candle: contains Soy Wax, Juniper Berry, Bergamot, Frankincense, Myrhh, Thyme and Rhodonite crystals.

• Healing Tin Candle: contains Soy Wax, Ylang Ylang, Chamomile, Lavender and Bergamot Essential Oils, Clear Quartz, Lapis Lazuli, Lepidolite, Citrine and Amethyst crystals.

• Let Go Handmade Travel Candle: contains Soy Wax, Eucalyptus Oil, Lavender Oil and Plant, Rosemary Oil and Plant, Selenite crystals.

• Energy Clearing Tin Travel Candle: contains: Soy Wax, infused with Dragon's Blood, Sage, Palo Santo, Juniper, Rosemary and Cedar, Black Tourmaline, Obsidian, Hematite, Tiger's Eye Crystals.

Picking Your Perfect Diy Candle Container

Here at Assembly we love to DIY candles. There are so many options for personalization when making your own. Of course there's the scent to think about, but you can also get creative with the container!

If you're interested in making your own one-of-a-kind candles, join us for a future Soy Candle Making Workshop in the studio where we share all our insider tips and tricks. We also have a Soy Candle Making Kit to make your own at home!

Once you have your candle making equipment and supplies, one of the big decisions is the container for the candle. Curious about what’s safe and what’s not? We thought we’d help you out with some do’s and don’ts when it comes to picking one out! Because while that coconut shell looks like it would make a great tropical candle, it could in reality cause more flames than vacation vibes.

Stating the obvious, your container needs to be heat-safe. Most glassware, ceramics, and tin will work, but there’s a few things to consider:

Glassware

When picking glassware, keep in mind it needs to withstand heat, hold wax well, and is not likely to crack. A crack while your candle is lit could be disastrous! Some glassware can be too thin. Canning jars are a great option. Not only are they cute, but they also meet the guidelines of withstanding heat and holding wax well. Besides picking an acceptable glass, there are a few best practice precautions you can take to make sure your glass doesn’t crack.

Firstly, always pick the right size wick for your candle. Overwicking your candle can lead to too much heat on your glassware, potentially causing cracks. If you’re unsure of what size wick to use, check out this “Wick Guide” that generates the perfect wick for your candle based on the diameter of your container and the type of wax you're using. Secondly, make sure your wick is centered. An uncentered wick could cause an excess of heat on one point of the glass, potentially causing cracks.

Ceramics

You also want to make sure your container is not porous (able to absorb liquid). Ceramics are great to use for candle containers, but they need to be properly treated so that they are no longer porous. Porous, unglazed materials, such as clay flower pots, can actually act as a wick, making your flame grow to the rim of your container, and you could wind up with a much bigger flame than intended. So stick to something that doesn’t soak in liquids such as ceramic bowls and mugs.

Make A DIY White Concrete Candle Holder As A Gift

Here’s another sweet idea for a handmade Christmas gift- a white concrete candle holder for tealight candles.

Concrete decor has unlimited options in what types of handmade products you can make.

And this particular candle is especially versatile for use in home decoration because it can be made into an “anytime of year” candle instead.

Rather than decoupaging it with Christmas mesh, you could use any decorative mesh for a unique look.

You can also replace the tealight candle and just switch the color from red to any other color.

I bet you’re wondering —is concrete safe for candles? Yes, concrete is safe for candles. But it’s important to note that high heat can cause cracking with certain types of concrete cement.

However, a candle generally doesn't produce enough heat to cause cracking.

How do you seal concrete candles? You seal concrete candles the same way you seal concrete by using an acrylic based sealer.

Some sealers do a better job of sealing than others. I have found this concrete sealer to do a very good job of preventing oil from candle wax from staining the concrete.

Get started early this year and make this unique Christmas gift that people will never believe was handmade.

Did You Know You Can Make A Candle Last Longer?

Anyone who follows my Instagram feed won't be surprised to hear that I realized I’d become a bit of a candle connoisseur. Many of my close friends refer to me as the Candle Making Guru. What is it about candles that I love the most? Candles are equivalent to perfume as the last touch to make a personalized, complete, and welcoming space.

But, it's not just the scent that intrigues me. It's the size, shape, style, and ambiance only a candle can create that captivates me. Votives, tea lights, wax melts, tapers, you name it – we have some type of candle in every room of our home.

With so much a candle has going for it, many of us never give candle burn time much thought. But, if you want to make a candle last longer, there are a few things you should consider before purchasing or making a candle. Let's start with the average burn time for six candle types, where I've included a printable candle burn time chart for 14 candle sizes. Then look to five essential tips to make a candle last longer, including how to make a candle burn evenly.